Military Operations

Israeli historian Benny Morris describes Operation Nachshon as "a watershed, characterized by an intention and effort to clear a whole area, permanently, of Arab villages and hostile or potentially hostile villagers." The operation was planned by Jewish Agency chairman David Ben-Gurion and the Haganah General Staff at the beginning of April. On the night of 31 March−1 April 1948, Ben-Gurion and members of the Haganah General Staff decided to launch a special operation to overrun the villages on both sides of the highway from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem. They designed the operation within the general framework of Plan Dalet. A force of 1,500 Palmach and Haganah troops (three battalions) was mobilized specifically for this offensive. Their operational orders stated that "all the Arab villages along the [Khulda−Jerusalem] axis were to be treated as enemy assembly or jump-off bases."

Operation Nachshon began with the occupation of Dayr Muhaysin and neighboring Khulda (both in Ramla District) on 3 April. Qalunya, about 3 km due east of Bayt Naqquba, was one of the main targets of the operation and was attacked on 11 April, according to the History of the Haganah. The New York Times reported that Haganah units "blew up a score of houses and left the entire village ablaze." The sources give differing accounts of the manner in which Qalunya was depopulated. The Times correspondent wrote that most villagers had been evacuated and that the rest were ordered out before the village was destroyed. Morris claims that the villagers had already fled on 2 or 3 April as a result of a Palmach attack, but an Irgun Zvai Leumi (IZL) broadcast stated at the time that the inhabitants of Qalunya had fled as a result of the Deir Yasin massacre on 9 April.

Deir Yasin (in the Jerusalem district) was the site of the best-known and perhaps bloodiest atrocity of the war. The IZL and Stern Gang (LEHI) attacked the village and, according to their own testimony and that of the Haganah, killed some 245 people, including women, children, and the elderly. The occupation of Deir Yasin fell within the general framework of the Haganah's Operation Nachshon.

According to Morris, the inhabitants of the area seized by Operation Nachshon fled either before or during the conquest of their villages. For this reason, he says, expulsion orders were not necessary. By 15 April the Palmach and Haganah battalions had achieved the operation's objectives. The New York Times stated that the occupation of the villages was an "important tactical success" in the battle for Jerusalem.

Selected bibliography

The New York Times. 8 April 1948, 10 April 1948, 12 April 1948, 17 April 1948, 27 May 1948.

al-Aref, Aref. Al-Nakba [The Catastrophe]. 6 Volumes. Beirut and Sidon: al-Maktaba al-Asriyya. 1956-1960, p. 158, 497, 514.

Dinur, Ben-Zion, Yehuda Slutski, Sha'ul Avigur, Yitzchaq Ben-Tzvi, and Yisra'el Galili. Sefer Toldot ha-Haganah [The History of the Haganah]. Tel Aviv: Am Oved, 1972, pp. 1546-48, 1560-63.

Israeli Ministry of Defense. Toldot Milchemet ha-Qomemiyyut [The History of the War of Independence]. Tel Aviv: Marakhot, 1959, p. 205 ff.

Morris, Benny. The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem 1947-1949. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978, p. xvii, 75, 111-15, 158.

al-Qawuqji, Fawzi. "Memoirs, 1948. Part One." Journal of Palestine Studies I (4): 27-58. "Memoirs, 1948. Part Two." Journal of Palestine Studies II (1): 3-33, 1972, p. 8.

Israeli forces launched Operation Hiram, a full-scale offensive, after the second truce of the war, in late October. According to the New York Times, the sixty-hour campaign was designed "to eliminate the Arab-held bulge descending into Galilee from Lebanon," a reference to the last pocket of Arab resistance in Galilee. Operation Hiram involved units drawn from four different Israeli brigades: Sheva', Carmeli, Golani, and 'Oded. Within three days the whole of Upper Galilee was occupied; the population was either expelled or fled out of fear. Some villages captured during the operation were emptied of their inhabitants immediately, but other villagers were expelled in the following weeks, on the pretext of "clearing" the border. Only a few communities in Upper Galilee remained. This result conformed well with Israeli prime minister David Ben-Gurion's statement before the cabinet a month earlier. On 26 September, Ben-Gurion predicted that should fighting resume in the north of Palestine, the Galilee would become "clean" and "empty" of Arabs, and implied that he had been assured of this by his generals.

Safsaf (Safad District), some 25 km to the east of Arab al-Samniyya (Acre District) was the first village to be occupied during Operation Hiram. The village had been the headquarters of the Arab Liberation Army's Second Yarmuk Battalion, led by Adib al-Shishakli, according to Palestinian historian Aref al-Aref. It fell before dawn on 29 October 1948; on 30 October, it was the scene of one of several massacres committed during the operation. Two platoons of armored cars and a tank company from the Sheva' (Seventh) Brigade attacked the village.

Forces on the eastern and western fronts converged in a pincer movement at Sa'sa' (also in Safad District, 20 km to the east of Arab al-Samniyya) around noon on 30 October. The following day, an Israeli army spokesman, quoted in the New York Times, said that several hundred of the area's defenders had been killed and another several hundred taken prisoner. In the words of Israel Galili, former head of the Haganah National Staff, acts of "mass murder" were committed in Sa'sa'.

As units of the Golani Brigade's First Battalion advanced on the southern front of Operation Hiram, they met units of the 'Oded Brigade moving eastwards at the Suhmata junction. According to the official Israeli military account, the villagers of Suhmata clashed with the invading Israeli forces. The History of the War of Independence states: "In the beginning, the village of Suhmata showed some resistance, but it was occupied after being encircled by an infantry platoon." United Nations officials observing the operation on 1 November found the villages around Tarshiha (2 km from Suhmata and 10 km southeast of Arab al-Samniyya) to be deserted and "reported the extensive looting of villages and the carrying away of goats, sheep and mules by the Israeli forces." The New York Times quoted the UN report, which added: "The looting appeared to the observers to have been systematic, army trucks being used. This situation has created a new influx of refugees into Lebanon."

At the end of Operation Hiram, on 30-31 October 1948, the participating units were ordered to extend their control along the length of the border with Lebanon, after having conquered a large area in the Upper Galilee. The village of Arab al-Samniyya was probably occupied at this time, when the 'Oded Brigade advanced westwards toward the coast along the road parallel to the border. On 31 October it took a number of other villages, such as Iqrit and Tarbikha.

Selected bibliography

The New York Times. 1 November 1948, 7 November 1948.

al-Aref, Aref. Al-Nakba [The Catastrophe]. 6 Volumes. Beirut and Sidon: al-Maktaba al-Asriyya. 1956-1960, p. 305.

Morris, Benny. The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem 1947-1949. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978, p. xiv, 217-19, 224-26, 230-31 ff., 237 ff., 350 (n. 37).

Nazzal, Nafez. The Palestinian Exodus from Galilee, 1948. Beirut: Institute for Palestine Studies, 1978, pp. 43-45, 95-96.

Israeli Ministry of Defense. Toldot Milchemet ha-Qomemiyyut [The History of the War of Independence]. Tel Aviv: Marakhot, 1959, pp. 321-26.

Operation Gideon was the code name given to the expulsion of the inhabitants of the Baysan Valley. It was implemented by the Haganah's Golani Brigade between 10 and 15 May 1948, just before the establishment of the state of Israel. It is possible that the Irgun Zvai Leumi also took part in this offensive, since it announced on 14 May that it had taken five Arab villages in the north.

Selected bibliography

The New York Times. 14 May 1948, 15 May 1948.

Morris, Benny. The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem 1947-1949. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978, p. xv, 75, 105-57.

al-Qawuqji, Fawzi. "Memoirs, 1948. Part One." Journal of Palestine Studies I (4): 27-58. "Memoirs, 1948. Part Two." Journal of Palestine Studies II (1): 3-33, 1972 pp. 35-36.

Operation Dani—the largest offensive to be launched during the Ten Days between the two truces of the war—was designed to expand the Jewish-held corridor to Jerusalem. It was carried out in two stages: in the first stage (9-12 July) the cities of Lydda and Ramla were captured, and in the second stage (13-18 July) the Israeli troops gained control of the Ramallah-al-Latrun highway.

The first stage was carried out by a composite force consisting of three Palmach brigades (Har'el, Yiftach, and the Eighth, or Armored) and two infantry battalions, one from the Kiryati Brigade and another (the Third Infantry Battalion) from the Alexandroni Brigade. Units from the Yiftach Brigade approached Lydda and Ramla from the south while troops from the other brigades approached from the north, seizing the villages in their paths.

The plan for the first stage in the operation was to use the village of al-Barriyya, in Ramla District, as the launching point for an Israeli unit that would surround Lydda and Ramla and cut the towns off from their hinterland. After encircling the two cities in a pincer movement, Israeli units launched an attack against Lydda, which fell on the evening of 10 July. After occupying Lydda, these forces proceeded to fan out into the town's hinterland, overrunning a number of villages in both the Lydda-Ramla Plain and the western approaches to Jerusalem.

Many of the villages occupied were systematically destroyed shortly after they were captured, according to Israeli historian Benny Morris. On 10 July operational headquarters ordered the Yiftach and Eighth brigades to blow up most of the houses of al-Tira, leaving a few houses intact to accommodate a small garrison. The Yiftach Brigade's orders were, in the words of Benny Morris, "to dig in in every place captured and to destroy every house not intended for occupation [by Israeli troops]." Neighboring Innaba received the same treatment. The New York Times reported that "al-Yahudiyya" (al-Abbasiyya) and Rantiyya (both in Jaffa District), and Qula (in Ramla District) were also occupied at this time. No mention is made of the villagers, who either fled under attack or were expelled upon the entry of the troops.

Ramla was attacked and occupied on 12 July. On the same day, some Israeli units were deployed northwards to secure the operation's northern flank. The Second Battalion of the Alexandroni Brigade occupied Majdal Yaba, wresting control of this village from the Iraqi forces defending it.

After this, the second phase of Operation Dani began, spilling over into the Jerusalem corridor. The Har'el Brigade was charged with the occupation of a number of villages further east. According to the History of the War of Independence, the initial plan was to occupy both al-Latrun and Ramallah and gain complete control of the Jerusalem road.

Israeli forces were ordered to attack Bayt Nabala, where the Arab Legion had stationed a second-line company (of around 120-150 soldiers), after the capture of Lydda and Ramla. On 13 July 1948, the residents of Lydda were expelled from their city and many were directed by Israeli soldiers to go to Bayt Nabala (which was still in Arab hands). Bayt Nabala was taken later that day after a "stiff' fight in which armored cars were used by both sides, according to the wire services. The next day, it was reported to be a no man's land, but "no longer a threat to Lydda or Ramleh," both of which were in Israeli hands.

The Israelis occupied Barfiliya, Bir Ma'in, al-Burj, and Salbit on 15 July 1948. The following day, the Arab Legion tried to regain control of Barfiliya, al-Burj, and Salbit with two infantry platoons and an armored column of ten tanks, as related by the History of the War of Independence. That account reads:

^{The tanks approached el Burj and our men let them advance towards the village's houses and then opened fire with anti-tank weapons. After a four-hour long battle, the enemy withdrew, taking some killed and wounded and leaving on the battlefield 4 armoured vehicles and a number of their dead. Meanwhile, our mortars and heavy machineguns opened fire on the enemy infantry, but they withdrew before we could complete their encirclement.}

Palestinian historian Aref al-Aref states that the attempt to recapture al-Burj blocked the advance of Israeli forces along this axis. Estimates of the number of casualties for the battle diverge considerably. According to the History of the War of Independence, thirty Arabs were killed and fifty wounded, with three Jews killed and another seven wounded. But al-Aref states that seven Arabs were killed and six were missing and presumed dead, while three were wounded. The Associated Press reported that, on the following day, Israeli forces quartered in Bir Ma'in and al-Burj put the al-Latrun-Ramallah highway under small arms fire.

As the second truce drew near and forces in the area were demarched to other fronts, the operation's commander decided to isolate al-Latrun from its hinterland and attack it from the east. The force assigned to isolate the village failed, sustaining nineteen casualties in a confrontation with the Arab Legion, according to the official Israel version. The sixth and final attempt to take al-Latrun, just before the second truce on 18 July, involved a direct frontal assault by units of the Yiftach Brigade. The Yiftach forces were equipped with a number of armored vehicles, including two Cromwell tanks, just dispatched from the northern sector. But this effort also failed due to technical difficulties with one of the tanks.

Selected bibliography

The New York Times. 11 July 1948, 13 July 1948, 14 July 1948, 15 July 1948, 17 July 1948, 18 July 1948, 19 July 1948, 21 July 1948, 11 August 1948.

al-Aref, Aref. Al-Nakba [The Catastrophe]. 6 Volumes. Beirut and Sidon: al-Maktaba al-Asriyya. 1956-1960, p. 514.

Israeli Ministry of Defense. Toldot Milchemet ha-Qomemiyyut [The History of the War of Independence]. Tel Aviv: Marakhot, 1959, p. 254 ff., 255-56, 260-63, 370.

Morris, Benny. The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem 1947-1949. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978, p. xvi, xvii, 75, 165, 166, 203.

Operation Bi'ur Hametz was part of the larger Operation Misparayim ("Scissors"), which was designed to cut the Arab section of Haifa in two. Bi'ur Hametz began on 22 April, two days after the fall of Haifa, with attacks on Balad al-Shaykh, some 10 km northwest of Khirbat al-Mansura. It continued for at least another three days, during which Haganah units (primarily Carmeli Brigade units) were deployed in the last week of April 1948 to occupy Haifa's hinterland and tighten their hold on the city. In a report filed at the end of April, British army officers said they thought it "likely that the Haganah will continue mortaring and shelling around Haifa to create an evacuation of the [Arab] population."

Selected bibliography

Israeli Ministry of Defense. Toldot Milchemet ha-Qomemiyyut [The History of the War of Independence]. Tel Aviv: Marakhot, 1959, p. 252.

Morris, Benny. The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem 1947-1949. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978, p. 75, 93-94.

Operation Barak was launched on 9 May 1948, mainly by the Haganah's Giv'ati Brigade, to "clear" the southern and western ends of its zone of control before 15 May. It targeted the villages south and west of Ramla. The Palmach's Negev Brigade also took part; it moved toward Ramla from the south, while the Giv'ati Brigade approached Ramla from the north. The operational plan was that the Giv'ati Brigade would fan out from its headquarters in the settlement of Rechovot, west of Ramla. Its objective, stated in the operational orders quoted by Israeli historian Benny Morris, was to "deny the enemy a base ... creating general panic and breaking his morale ... " Morris reports that one of the declared aims was to drive out a large number of Palestinians from the villages in the occupied area.

The Giv'ati Brigade expanded the area under its control in this operation and "cleared" the coastal area west of Ramla and Lydda, in accordance with Plan Dalet. The plan's guidelines to the commander of the brigade, Shim'on Avidan, said, in part: "You will determine alone, in consultation with your Arab affairs advisers and Intelligence Service officers, [which] villages in your zone should be occupied, cleaned up or destroyed." In keeping with the Giv'ati Brigade's practice during this operation, any villagers who remained in a village after it had been occupied were subject to expulsion.

As British forces withdrew from Palestine, on 15 May 1948, the Haganah launched the second stage of Operation Barak in the south of the country. By the end of May the two brigades occupied more than thirty villages and had driven out tens of thousands of people.

Selected bibliography

Morris, Benny. The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem 1947-1949. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978, pp. 125-27.